1、Agriculture PracticeWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersMcKinsey research identified more than 30 measures that smallholder farmers can pursue to adapt to and mitigate climate change.February 2023by Chania Frost,Kartik Jayaram,and Gillian Pais pixelfusion3d/Getty ImagesWhat c

2、limate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersSmallholder farmers1 generate an estimated 32 percent of global greenhouse-gas(GHG)emissions from agriculture.2 They are also one of the populations most at risk from climate change.Our analysis shows that in three countriesIndia,Ethiopia,and Mex

3、iconearly 80 percent of all smallholder farmers could be affected by at least one climate hazard by 2050(Exhibit 1).Moreover,climate change will affect land suitability for crop production.For example,by 2050,India could lose 450,000 square kilometers of land currently suitable for rainfed rice cult

4、ivation(Exhibit 2).Stakeholders have focused on climate-smart agri-culture for the past two decades.Nonetheless,there is no clear road map for the types of mitigation and adaptation measures smallholder farmers can adopt and how to prioritize investments and efforts to support those measures.In this

5、 article,we try to fill this gap.Our work is informed by a geospatial analysis of climate risk in key smallholder markets;an extensive review of current technologies and tools that smallholder farmers can deploy to adapt to and mitigate climate change;and a prioritization of those measures based on

6、agroecological and farming systems in different countries.Identifying adaptation and mitigation measures that the worlds 510 million smallholder farmers can adopt is critical to the protection and support of their livelihoods in the face of climate-related hazards.3 They are also key to global food

7、security.Smallholder farms produce a third of the worlds food,and global food demand is expected to increase by 60 percent by 2050.4 Meanwhile,climate change has already led to a 21 percent loss of agricultural productivity globally since 1961.5 In a world where temperatures could rise another 2C by

8、 2050,there could be large reductions in crop yields if no countermeasures are taken.For example,in Africa,pest-driven losses are expected to increase by 50 percent(compared to the baseline)for staple crops such as maize,rice,and wheat.6 These measures are also important for countries with large sma

9、llholder populations and those that are making low-carbon pathway commitments,given that they will likely need to help farmers transition to less carbon-intensive agriculture.For example,Kenya has announced a nationally determined contribution(NDC)of reducing 32 percent of emissions by 2030,relative

10、 to the baseline.Kenyas agricultural sector is the countrys largest source(58.6 percent)of total emissions.7 So reaching its carbon reduction goals will require the participation of its 4.5 million smallholder farmers(about 80 percent of all farmers)and 600,000 pastoralists.We identified more than 3

11、0 measures smallholder farmers can adopt to help adapt to and mitigate climate change.We also noted several approaches that governments,development partners,and the private sector could pursue to help scale those measures.We found that implementing a prioritized set of three measures at scale in eac

12、h country could mitigate 45 percent of smallholder farmerdriven carbon emissions.For adaptation,almost every smallholder farmer can adopt at least one on-farm adaptation measure.But about 75 percent can adopt at least threeand the more measures they adopt,the more likely that greater climate resilie

13、nce could be achieved.How smallholder farmers can adapt to and mitigate climate changeAdoption of adaptation and mitigation measures among smallholder farmers is complex.Smallholder 21 For the purposes of this article,we define smallholder farmers as crop farmers with land sizes of two hectares or l

14、ess and small-scale livestock producers,including those in extensive livestock systems,such as pastoralists.2 Emissions include those from agriculture as well as from agriculture-driven land-use change.Sonja Vermeulen and Eva Wollenberg,“A rough estimate of the proportion of global emissions from ag

15、riculture due to smallholders,”CGIAR,April 2017.3 The 510 million represents the global number of farms of two hectares or less based on Raffaele Bertini,Sarah K.Lowder,and Mario V.Sanchez,“Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated?”World Development,June 2021,Volume 142.N

16、ote that this number does not include pastoralists.4 Jos Graziano Da Silva,“Feeding the world sustainably,”UN Chronicle,June 2012,Volume 49,Number 1 and 2.5 Ariel Ortiz-Bobea et al.,“Anthropogenic climate change has slowed global agricultural productivity growth,”Nature Climate Change,April 2021,Vol

17、ume 11.6 C.H.Trisos et al.,“Africa,”in Climate change 2022,February 27,2022.7“Climate-smart agriculture in Kenya,”CIAT,CGIAR,and The World Bank,October 2015.What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersWe identified more than 30 measures smallholder farmers can adopt to help adapt to

18、and mitigate climate change.3Exhibit 1Nearly 80 percent of smallholder farmers in India,Ethiopia,and Mexico could be afected by at least one climate hazard.McKinsey&CompanySmallholder farmer2 population density per square kilometer at district level Climate hazards1:DroughtExtreme heatRiverine foodC

19、oastal foodDroughtExtreme heatRiverine foodingCoastal foodingExposure to at least one of the hazardsSmallholder farmers exposed to high or moderate risk from climate hazards,%95377579851869678114406374217599046Note:The boundaries and names shown on the maps do not imply ofcial endorsement or accepta

20、nce by McKinsey&Company.1Denote an areas exposure to climate hazards of drought,extreme heat,riverine fooding,and coastal fooding in a 2C scenario.Based on a high-emission RCP 8.5 scenario,reaching 2C global warming in year 2050.2Includes crop farmers and extensive livestock farmers.Based on 2020 po

21、pulation estimate.IndiaEthiopiaMexicoWeighted averageWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersfarms are fragmented and often have limited access to inputs,new agricultural technologies,and financing.However,as previously mentioned,we identified more than 30 measures smallholder fa

22、rmers can pursue for adaptation and mitigation.We divide these measures into five categories:animal production practices,rice-based measures,other crop-based measures,land-use change and intensification,and postharvest and processing loss(Table 1).We separate rice measures from other crops because e

23、missions from rice production are anywhere from five to 30 times higher per hectare than those from other crops.8 Of these measures,some are limited to climate adaptation,such as eco-engineering reefs to protect coastlines from flooding and the intro-duction of pest-tolerant crop varieties.Others ar

24、e exclusively mitigation measures,such as GHG-focused livestock breed selection and scaling solar-powered irrigation.But many measures have both adaptation and mitigation benefits.For example,introducing irrigation to increase productivity has an indirect mitigation effect,allowing farmers to grow m

25、ore crops on less land and therefore reducing the amount of land needed for agriculture.But irrigation also has an adaptation benefit by allowing farmers 48 This range depends on the type of crop with which rice is compared.Exhibit 2Change in land suitability for rainfed rice at 2C global warming(20

26、50 vs 1990)across production regions1By 2050,India could lose 450,000 square kilometers of land currently suitable for rainfed rice cultivation,while Southeast Asia will gain suitable land.McKinsey&CompanyLost landNot currently grownNew landNo changeNote:The boundaries and names shown on maps do not

27、 imply ofcial endorsement or acceptance by McKinsey&Company.1Future suitability was calculated at RCP 8.5 for each of fve Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP)phase-5 general circulation models,chosen based on performance in temperature and precipitation metrics and accessed via WorldClim:CCSM

28、4,GFDL-CM3,MPI-ESM-LR,HadGEM2-ES,and NorESM1-M.The ensemble mean of the fve climate models is presented here.The mean is over the 19812000 vs 204059 period.The land suitability map is masked by the 2010 rainfed production areas(MapSPAM).Source:European Space Agency,Climate Change Initiative Land Cov

29、er website(ESACCI-LC),land-use data;FAOSTAT agricultural production data;Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)Crop Ecological Requirements Database(ECOCROP);Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool(IBAT)World Database on Protected Areas(WDPA),protected areas data;International

30、Soil Reference and Information Centre(ISRIC)soil depth data;ISRIC soil pH data;Shuttle Radar Topography Mission(SRTM)elevation data;WorldClim climatic data;McKinsey ACRE Land Suitability ModelWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersTable 1.Thirty-three mitigation and adaptation m

31、easures relevant to smallholder farmersThemeMeasureMitigationAdaptationAnimal production practices1Improve breeding systems(breed selection and breeding or insemination timing management)for increased productivity and reduced greenhouse-gas(GHG)emissions(with GHG-focused breed selection)2Intensify f

32、odder production to reduce extensive grazing for dairy cattle and reduce emissions from land-use conversion3Expand use of feed processing for improved digestibility to reduce methane emissions from enteric fermentation4Optimize animal feed composition and transition to diets that reduce methane prod

33、uction from enteric fermentation 5Integrate livestock and crop systems to reduce nutrient losses(ie,manage-ment of farm-level nutrient flows and losses from manure)to reduce further input requirements and related emissions6Improve animal health monitoring and illness prevention to control disease ou

34、tbreaks(predicted to increase with warming climates),thereby increasing productivity and creating emissions savings7Improve timing of livestock sales(eg,by weight,age,and time of year)to maximize productivity and reduce GHG-emissions footprint per head 8Optimize stocking rate(livestock heads per hec

35、tare)according to land capac-ity to minimize land degradation and maximize grassland and livestock per-formance9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland restoration to improve grassland health and increase soil carbon contentCrop production practices:Rice10Utilize dry direct-seeding technology and opt

36、imize rice variety selection(eg,aerobic rice that grows in nonflooded fields)to increase productivity and reduce methane emissions from rice paddies as well as reduce reliance on water11Improve water management to reduce methane emissions in rice paddies12Improve placement of fertilizer(eg,urea deep

37、 fertilization)to reduce emissions from nitrogen fertilizer use13Improve rice straw management by incorporating crop residues into paddy soil to maintain and enhance soil fertility and carbon storageCrop production practices:Other crops14Expand use of new pest management practices(eg,seeds,IPM1)to m

38、aintain productivity in the face of projected increased pest and disease threats in a warming climate 15Expand use of drought-tolerant crop varieties to maintain productivity in the face of projected increased rainfall variability 16Scale low-or no-tillage farming to minimize soil disturbance and re

39、tain organic soil cover17Intercrop2 to improve soil health,reduce pest and disease outbreaks,and optimize fertilizer use 18Expand use of crop rotations and cover cropping using legumes or a mix that includes a legume to improve soil health and reduce nitrogen application5What climate-smart agricultu

40、re means for smallholder farmersThemeMeasureMitigationAdaptationCrop production practices:Other crops19Expand use of soil testing to guide fertilizer application,increasing yields,improving soil health,and reducing overall fertilizer application20Reduce overapplication of nitrogen fertilizers in Ind

41、ia and China to reduce emissions associated with fertilizer losses21Expand use of soil amendments(eg,manure,compost,crop residue,lime,biochar,and various inoculations)to improve soil health22Switch to other crops better suited to climate-related land suitability changes to ensure long-term sustainab

42、ilityLand use change and intensification23Expand adoption of effective rainwater harvesting(eg,with earth or stone-works)to prolong access to water and reduce runoff,improving soil health and reducing fertilizer losses24Introduce irrigation(from exclusively rainfed farming)to increase productivity a

43、nd resilience in relation to increased rainfall variability,and reduce risk of land use change and related emissions25Transition to drip or sprinkler irrigation(from flood irrigation)to improve water efficiency and reduce soil erosion,improving soil health and reducing fertiliz-er losses26Scale sola

44、r-powered irrigation(from petrol pump irrigation)to reduce emis-sions from fossil fuelpowered alternatives27Electrify on-farm machinery and equipment(except scaling solar-powered irrigation)to reduce fossil fuelpowered alternatives28Develop eco-engineering(use of ecology and engineering to restore a

45、nd protect ecosystems)of reefs to protect mangrove forests to provide coastal flood buffers,protecting coastal agriculture29Expand agroforestry(integrating trees into cropland for firewood,forestry-based land restoration,and diversified income)to improve ecological functions,improve soil water stora

46、ge,increase soil productivity,reduce erosion,improve the microclimate,and buffer against climate variabilityall while increasing carbon sequestration and reducing the need for deforestation for fuelwoodPostharvest and processing losses30Improve loss management in meat and dairy production(eg,through

47、 solar cold-chain storage)31Introduce mechanization in rice farming to reduce food loss and associated emissions32Reduce on-farm postharvest crop loss through improved storage and pack-aging33 Utilize crop waste(eg,for animal feed,biomass energy production,biochar production,biofuel generation and c

48、omposting),particularly in lieu of burning,to reduce related emissions1 Integrated pest management.This is application of a combination of all available pest control techniques(biological,chemical,physical,and cultural)that discourage the development of pest populations and minimize the use of chemi

49、cal pesticides.2 Intercropping is growing two or more crops together in a field,where the combination results in higher yields due to making use of ecological resources or processes that a monocrop cannot produce(eg,through increased water retention and provision of shade).Source:McKinsey ACRE geosp

50、atial analysis;McKinsey Marginal Abatement Cost Curve(MACC)model6What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersto continue to grow certain crops despite climate changerelated increases in water stress and drought.(See sidebar,“About the research,”for an explanation of adaptation and mi

51、tigation and the methodology under which these measures were derived and prioritized;see the technical appendix for the case studies on which each measure is based.)While we focus on carbon emissions and climate adaptation in this article,it is important to note that these measures also have importa

52、nt nature-related benefits.These include reducing land-use change,decreasing nutrient runoff into waterways by moderating fertilizer application,and adopting integrated pest management practices.Each measure is based on a proven trial in a smallholder farming environment.For example,one measure rela

53、ted to animal production practices focuses on improving livestock breeding systems for increased productivity and reduced GHG emissions.The approach was used in Malawi and Uganda for a community-based goat-breeding program with 269 farmers.In the program,goats reached a higher average weight(from 16

54、 kilograms to 19 kilograms with the improved breeding)and survival rates(from 72 percent to 91 percent);emissions were also reduced.9 As another example,in rice production,straw management can be used to maintain and enhance soil fertility and carbon storage.One case from Vietnam showed that the dir

55、ect incorporation of rice residues into soils after harvest led to increased soil organic carbon by about three metric tons per hectare.The approach also significantly reduced the amount of chemical fertilizer required to achieve the same yields by returning nutrients to the soil.10 For other crops,

56、greater use of a combination of six tillage,residue management,and intercropping practices in legumericewheat cropping systems in India resulted in the lowest emissions.The practices led to 823 to 3,301 kilograms of CO2-equivalent sequestered per hectare per year compared with 4,113 to 7,917 emitted

57、 per hectare per year in typical farming practices,as well as a 29 percent decrease in water usage.11Prioritizing investments in adoption of on-farm adaptation and mitigation measuresThe choice of measures to invest in depends on multiple factors,including a countrys farming system;farmers access to

58、 markets,which is an indicator of their ability to access other actors such as sales agents for seed companies that sell new drought-resistant seed varieties;cost of adoption;and capabilities required.Taking these factors into account,we prioritized measures using geospatial analysis in three countr

59、ies:India,Ethiopia,and Mexico.Together,they are home to more than 40 percent of the global smallholder farmer population and generate about one metric gigaton of GHG emissions from agriculture.12 The results highlight not only areas of commonality across smallholder systems but also the importance o

60、f a differentiated approach by country and subnational region.How adaptation measures vary by countryPriorities for adaptation differ by country.These differences are mainly driven by varied exposure to climate change hazards and by the farming systems used in the exposed areas(Table 2).For example,

61、using drought-tolerant seed varieties is much more applicable in drought-prone India or Mexico than in Ethiopia.This is because pastoral livestock systems dominate the drought-prone regions of Ethiopia rather than crop production.Moreover,as shown in Exhibit 1,more farmers in India(95 percent of the

62、 total)are exposed to at least one risk,and most are exposed to multiple risks,which requires the adoption of multiple adaptation measures.In Ethiopia,on the other hand,37 percent of farmers are exposed to at least one risk,and few 9 Wilson Kaumbata et al.,“Experiences from the implementation of com

63、munity-based goat breeding programs in Malawi and Uganda:A potential approach for conservation and improvement of indigenous small ruminants in smallholder farms,”Sustainability,February 2021,Volume 13,Number 3.10 Dao Trong Hung et al.,“Rice-residue management practices of smallholder farms in Vietn

64、am and their effects on nutrient fluxes in the soil-plant system,”Sustainability,March 2019,Volume 11,Number 6.11 Tek B.Sapkota et al.,“Global warming potential through sustainable intensification of basmati rice-wheat systems in India,”Sustainability,June 2017,Volume 9,Number 6.12 Calculation based

65、 on indicators found on the FAOSTAT Emissions Totals database.7What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmers8About the researchIn our research,we looked at adaptation and mitigation levers that smallholder farmers could adopt.This research involved geospatial and land suitability anal

66、ytics from McKinseys ACRE team(our agriculture advanced-analytics center)and geospatial climate hazard anal-ysis from our Climate Analytics team.Adaptation addresses the impact of climate change.It refers either to actions taken to reduce vulnerability to the current and future effects of climate ch

67、ange or to taking advantage of opportunities created by climate change.These actions include switching to other crops better suited to climate-related land changes,expanding the use of drought-tolerant crop varieties,and using dry direct-seeding technology for rice.Mitigation measures focus on the c

68、auses of climate change.They are actions taken to reduce and curb the increase of greenhouse-gas(GHG)emissions.Mitigation is achieved either by reducing the sources of these gases or by enhancing the storage of themfor example,by increasing the size of forests.Some measures include reducing the over

69、application of nitrogen fertilizers(especially in China and India),scaling rotational grazing and rangeland restoration,or optimizing animal feed composition to reduce methane produced from enteric fermentation.We followed a three-step process to de-termine priority measures that smallholder farmers

70、 could adopt:We identified 33 climate adaptation and mitigation measures through a comprehensive literature review to determine measures that have been tested withor are actively being implemented bysmallholder farmers in different countries and that have been demonstrated to be effective.We evaluat

71、ed the theoretical scale of adoption of these measures for India,Ethiopia,and Mexico.We chose these countries because they contain more than 40 percent of the global smallholder farmer population,they come from three regions(Africa,Asia,and Latin America)where smallholder farms are dominant,and they

72、 have strong data availability.We based the evaluation on a geospatial analysis at a ten-by-ten-kilometer resolution of crop and livestock production types(using more than 30 crop types and dairy and meat from cows,goats,sheep,and buffalo)and four production systems(irrigated high-input production;r

73、ainfed,high-input,and commercial production;rainfed,low-input production;and rainfed,low-input,and subsistence production).We also layered on measure-specific factors such as access to surface water,distance to a coastal ecosystem,and soil type.We prioritized measures based on impact and feasibility

74、 criteria:For adaptation,we based prioritization on the scale of exposure to the most relevant climate hazards,such as drought,extreme heat,and coastal and riverine flooding.For mitigation,we based priori-tization on two factors:impact and feasibility.Impact was measured using GHG-emission-reduction

75、 potential.This was determined by calculating the area of farmland where measures could technically be implementedor calculating the number of livestock heads for which measures could be implemented based on the theoretical scale of adoption described aboveand multiplying it by expected GHG reductio

76、n potential per hectare or per livestock head based on findings from research trials.Feasibility was evaluated based on three criteria:cost(a qualitative assessment of whether the measure is capital intensive;requires an increase in operational expenses,including labor or inputs;or is cost neutral);

77、capabilities required to implement a measure(an assessment of whether the measure required a single agronomic practice change with standard technical assistance or a more complex multiprocess change with specialized support);and access to market(a sliding scale,with“good”market access defined as a o

78、ne-day round trip,four hours each way,from the nearest large market center).What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmers9Table 2.Priority adaptation measuresPercent of smallholder farmers(for all nonlivestock levers)and livestock heads(for all livestock levers)exposed to climate haza

79、rds and for which measure is applicableRank within lever type:Soil health Adaptation of crop varieties Irrigation or water Other LivestockNonlivestock leversRankIndiaEthiopiaMexico117Intercrop to improve soil health95%17Intercrop to improve soil health37%17Intercrop to improve soil health75%219Expan

80、d use of soil testing to guide fertiliz-er application95%19Expand use of soil testing to guide fertiliz-er application37%19Expand use of soil testing to guide fertiliz-er application75%314Expand use of new pest management practices(eg,seeds,IPM1)91%14Expand use of new pest management practices(eg,se

81、eds,IPM)33%23Expand adoption of effective rainwater har-vesting69%423Expand adoption of effective rainwater har-vesting85%21Expand use of soil amendments19%14Expand use of new pest management practices(eg,seeds,IPM)59%515Expand use of drought-tolerant crop varieties83%23Expand adoption of effective

82、rainwater har-vesting18%15Expand use of drought-tolerant crop varieties55%629Expand agroforestry78%15Expand use of drought-tolerant crop varieties16%16Scale low or no-tillage farming38%721Expand use of soil amendments66%16Scale low or no-tillage farming13%18Expand use of crop rotations23%Livestock l

83、eversRankIndiaEthiopiaMexico16Improve animal health monitoring and ill-ness prevention96%6Improve animal health monitoring and ill-ness prevention52%6Improve animal health monitoring and ill-ness prevention63%28Optimize stocking rate(livestock head per hectare)according to land capacity65%8Optimize

84、stocking rate(livestock head per hectare)according to land capacity50%8Optimize stocking rate(livestock head per hectare)according to land capacity62%39Scale rotational grazing and rangeland resto-ration65%9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland resto-ration50%9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland

85、 resto-ration62%Note:Lever 22(“Switch to other crops better suited to climate-related land suitability changes”)is applicable to all countries but is not shown here because it is not sized,given the complex analysis required to determine land suitability changes and optimization of crop mix for each

86、 country and subnational area.1 Integrated pest management.What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersDriving adoption of these measures will require solutions at the farm and agriculture-system levels.face multiple risks.Nonetheless,resilience is likely to increase for any farmer w

87、ho adopts multiple measures.Our analysis shows that about 75 percent of smallholder farmers in these three countries could adopt the three highest-priority measures.How mitigation measures vary by countryFrom a technical point of view,the breadth of application of all the measures combined would all

88、ow the vast majority(90 percent)of farmers in the three countries to adopt at least one mitigation measure.However,the applicability of measures varies across and within countries,driven by different farming systems and practices that lead to different emission mixes(Exhibit 3).For example,fertilize

89、r application rates are more than five times higher in India than in Ethiopia,which means that soil-and fertilizer-related mitigation measures are much more applicable in India.13 When layering on feasibility criteria,the top ten mitigation measures highlight important differences by country(Exhibit

90、 4 and Table 3).In India,given its large crop production(and rice production,in particular),rice-and crop-based measures account for nine of the ten priority measures.About 50 percent of smallholder farmerdriven agriculture emissions in India could be mitigated by scaling agroforestry and transition

91、ing to more sustainable rice production practices on smallholder farms.Agroforestry alone represents the largest opportunity,with a mitigation opportunity seven times that of the next most impactful measure of incorporating rice straw into soils.14 This is consis-tent with the launch of Indias Natio

92、nal Agroforestry Policy in 2014.India is the first nation to introduce such a plan to mitigate climate change and increase the resilience of smallholder farmers.In Ethiopia and Mexico,where cattle production systems are more common,livestock-related measures dominate and could collectively mitigate

93、up to 25 percent and 35 percent of emissions,respectively.In Mexico,60 percent of land is considered arid or semiarid,with a substantial area dedicated to the range farming of livestock.As a result,one of the largest mitigation opportunities15 lies in regenerative rangeland management.In Ethiopia,th

94、e livestock sector is responsible for 60 percent of agricultural emissions.16 Thus,Ethiopias emission-reduction potential is mostly associated with livestock-based measures(eight of the top ten),with rangeland management,improved timing of livestock sales,increased adoption of veterinary services,an

95、d feed-based measures making up a significant proportion of the opportunity.In aggregate,these countries could achieve about 455 metric megatons of CO2-equivalent emissions savingscollectively about 45 percent of the total smallholder farmerdriven agriculture emissions from India,Ethiopia,and Mexico

96、by implementing only the top three prioritized levers across smallholder farms in a comprehensive and widespread manner.1013“Fertilizer consumption(kilograms per hectare of arable land),”The World Bank,accessed December 20,2022.14 We define agroforestry as land suitable for trees to grow in a range

97、of grass-and crop-based systems and with a tree density of 45 or more trees per hectare.15 Paulina Alejandra Pontifes et al.,“Land use/land cover change and extreme climatic events in the arid and semi-arid ecoregions of Mexico,”Atmsfera,August 2018,Volume 31,Number 4.16 Andreas Wilkes et al.,Invent

98、ory of greenhouse gas emissions from cattle,sheep and goats in Ethiopia(1994-2018)calculated using the IPCC Tier 2 approach,CGIAR,2020.What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersExhibit 3RiceFertilizersOther cropsDairy(cattle and bufalo)Beef(cattle and bufalo)Other animalsEnergy use

99、IndiaEthiopiaMexicoAll 3 countries334013342410810142420122137193362613116111110Note:Figures may not sum to 100%,because of rounding.1Percentage breakdown is directional and not inclusive of land use,land-use change,and forestry(LULUCF)and fres.Source:McKinsey analysis100%Percentage breakdown of smal

100、lholder farmerdriven emissions1Smallholder farmerdriven emissions across India,Ethiopia,and Mexico difer greatly.McKinsey&CompanyThese countries could achieve about 455 metric megatons of CO2-equivalent emissions savings by implementing only three levers.11What climate-smart agriculture means for sm

101、allholder farmers12Exhibit 4Livestock:Size=%livestock head measure is relevant forCrop or land(nonrice):Size=%smallholder farmer population measure is relevant forRice:Size=%smallholder farmerpopulation measure is relevant for(rice measures)IndiaEthiopiaMexicoImpact,%greenhouse-gas(GHG)emission-redu

102、ction potential vs total national agriculture emissionsImpact,%GHG emission-reduction potential vs total national agriculture emissionsImpact,%GHG emission-reduction potential vs total national agriculture emissionsHighLowLowHighFeasibility1HighLowLowHighFeasibility1HighLowLowHighFeasibility12913111

103、63915915322042924171921252318111213162667225472327241821620121019179156729217342624251012201823192111Emissions mitigation potential plotted against feasibility of measure implementation across the three focus countries1Feasibility is based on a composite score of cost of adoption,ease of adoption,an

104、d access to markets.Indias mitigation opportunities are highest for crop measures(especially rice),whereas Ethiopias and Mexicos are with livestock.McKinsey&CompanyWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersImplications for actors seeking to support adaptation and mitigation for sma

105、llholder farmers Governments,financiers,development organi-zations,and private-sector players have a key role to play in supporting the global smallholder-farming communitys shift to more sustainable practices.Our analysis highlights two important considerations for this support.First,as described a

106、bove,it is important to prioritize which measures to focus on at a subnational level given the heterogeneity of smallholder farmer production systems,the range of impact,and the feasibility of adoption.This prioritization exercise could enable the identification of clusters of smallholder farms in w

107、hich multiple measures are feasible for adoption and piloting could begin.13Table 3.Priority measures by countryRank within lever type:Rice-based measures Crop-or land-based measures Livestock-based measuresRankIndiaEthiopiaMexico129Expand agroforestry9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland restorat

108、ion9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland restoration213Improve rice straw management by incorporating crop residues7Improve timing of livestock sales to maximize productivity and reduce emissions29Expand agroforestry317Intercrop to improve soil health and reduce pest and disease outbreaks 6Improve

109、 animal health moni-toring and illness prevention to maximize productivity7Improve timing of livestock sales to maximize productivity and reduce emissions419Expand use of soil testing to guide fertilizer application 5Integrate livestock and crop sys-tems to reduce nutrient losses and need for more i

110、nputs6Improve animal health moni-toring and illness prevention to maximize productivity 511Improve water management to reduce methane emissions in rice paddies1Improve breeding systems for increased productivity and reduced emissions 2Intensify fodder production to reduce extensive grazing and assoc

111、iated land-use change610Utilize dry direct-seeding technology and optimize rice variety selection to reduce meth-ane emissions3Expand use of feed processing for improved digestibility to reduce methane emissions5Integrate livestock and crop sys-tems to reduce nutrient losses and need for more inputs

112、716Scale low-or no-tillage farming to minimize soil disturbance2Intensify fodder production to reduce extensive grazing and associate land-use change1Improve breeding systems for increased productivity and reduced emissions 820Reduce overapplication of nitro-gen fertilizers4Optimize the animal feed

113、com-position17Intercrop to improve soil health and reduce pest and dis-ease outbreaks912Improve placement of fertilizer(eg,urea deep fertilization)29Expand agroforestry3Expand use of feed processing for improved digestibility to reduce methane emissions103Expand use of feed processing for improved d

114、igestibility to reduce methane emissions24Introduce irrigation(from exclu-sively rainfed farming)16Scale low-or no-tillage farming to minimize soil disturbanceWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersOn this point,concerns such as market access are critical.For example,in India,al

115、most all farmer types are within four hours of a market by road.By comparison,in Ethiopia,as few as 10 percent of farmers have market access in some areas because of greater population dispersion and less-developed infrastructure.This low market access suggests a potentially higher cost per farmer t

116、o implement measures at scale.Second,driving adoption of these measures will require solutions at the farm and agriculture-system levels.Not only will farmers have to consider changing on-farm practices,but national agriculture research systems will also have to reflect on how to develop and commerc

117、ialize new technologies,such as drought-tolerant seeds.Additionally,stakeholders will have to consider investments such as improved infrastructure to build resilience in the face of climate volatility.Government and private-sector actors will also have to consider building market linkages for crops

118、in different areas because farmers might switch crops due to changing land suitability,as described earlier.We identified several cross-cutting approaches that could help scale priority measures(Table 4).These solutions start with building a climate riskadjusted agriculture and land management plan

119、that geospatially prioritizes adaptation and mitigation measures at a subnational level and that ties investments to that prioritization.The solutions also include developing financing and incentive mechanisms to encourage on-farm practice shifts(for example,redesigning subsidy schemes,offering tax

120、incentives,and linking farmers to carbon markets);putting system enablers in place(investing more in R&D and scaling traceability systems);and mitigating climate-induced volatility(scaling up crop insurance and integrating climate modeling into food security planning).Few of these cross-cutting appr

121、oaches have been applied in practice,given that the discussion of adaptation and mitigation for smallholder farmers is relatively new.However,there are some pilots under way.In China,for example,the government changed its subsidy policies to discourage use of chemical fertilizer for specific crops a

122、nd encourage the adoption of organic fertilizer substitutes,with a particular focus on reducing nitrogen overapplication.This policy has helped reduce the application of chemical fertilizers by 111.5 kilograms per hectare in pilot counties and increase the use of organic fertilizers by 346.36 kilogr

123、ams per hectare for sampled farmers.One estimate found that such policy reforms could reduce fertilizer use by 30 percent compared with current rates.17 Additionally,the International Food Policy Research Institutes modeling of historic data in Punjab,India,has been used to project the effect of rem

124、oving the subsidy for groundwater extraction,eliminating minimum support price policies for water-intensive crops,and reallocating subsidies to climate-smart technologies such as crop diversification,low tillage,and on-farm rainwater-harvesting ponds with solarized pumps and microirrigation.The mode

125、ling suggests there is potential to reduce water consumption by 15 billion cubic meters per year and reduce GHG emissions by 23 million metric tons by 2050.The modeling also finds that there will ultimately be no change to Punjabs budget if subsidies for groundwater extraction are reallocated as inc

126、entives for the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices.18 Development partners and private actors are also implementing pilots to support adoption of climate-smart measures.One Acre Fund,a social enterprise that works with more than one million smallholder farmers in Africa,is expanding an

127、agroforestry program,exploring the link to carbon credit markets to offer incentives for on-farm tree planting.19 Others are using financial innovation to support climate-smart agriculture and resilience.F3 Life and Financial Access piloted a Climate-Smart Lending 1417 Xiaoxi Wang et al.,“Reforming

128、Chinas fertilizer policies:Implications for nitrogen pollution reduction and food security,”Sustainability Science,July 2022.18 Barun Deb Pal and Narendra Kumar Tyagi,Synthesis report:Scaling-up climate-smart agriculture in South Asia,International Food Policy Research Institute,2022.19“Cultivating

129、new frontiers:2021 annual report,”One Acre Fund,2021.What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersTable 4.Cross-cutting solutions to scale adoption of the prioritized measures Primary actorTypeMacrosolutionsGovernmentDevelopment partnersPrivate sectorPlan and prioritize at a national

130、and subnational level Develop a climate risk-adjusted sustainable agriculture investment and land management plan at national and subnational levels including the following:Geospatially prioritized adaptation and mitigation measures at a subnational level,identifying clusters where multiple measures

131、 are feasible to focus efforts at the start Opportunities for land-use optimization tied to financing and incentive mechanisms,such as where to encourage migration of production to alternative crops or more favorable locations,planning where to give(or no longer give)agriculture land leases,and esta

132、blishment of nature-based solutions(eg,mangrove forest expansion for carbon sequestration)Plan for internal climate migrations(including estimation on number of people,supporting programs such as education and job training to diversify livelihoods,inclusion and participation of marginalized and disp

133、laced populations,and access to social services)A revised national agriculture budget and investment plan tied to above and transparent to allDevelop financing and incentive mechanisms to encourage shifts Redesign subsidies to offer incentives for the adoption of adaptation and mitigation measures(e

134、g,reduce subsidies for nitrogen fertilizers or introduce targeted subsidies to promote growing specific crops in areas according to the land management plan)Develop land buyout products aligned with land-use optimization assessment Introduce tax incentives to increase adoption of prioritized adaptat

135、ion and mitigation measures(eg,reduced land tax for farmlands with mixed-use systems,sales tax exemptions for specific inputs such as drought-resistant seeds)Link farmers adopting mitigation measures to carbon markets through aggregators Design agriculture lending products specifically linked to ado

136、ption of prioritized adaptation and mitigation measures15What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersTable 4.Cross-cutting solutions to scale adoption of the prioritized measures(continued)Primary actorTypeMacrosolutionsGovernmentDevelopment partnersPrivate sectorDevelop financing an

137、d incentive mechanisms to encourage shifts(continued)Launch a results-based payments scheme tied to achievement of goals under the agriculture investment and land management plan Explore regulatory measures(eg,limiting legal limit of nitrogen per ha,imposing a minimum tree cover per hectare)Put syst

138、em enablers in place Scale investment in R&D and commercialization of technologies for mitigation and adaptation(eg,for pest-resistant seeds,livestock breeds,fertilizer coatings,and biostimulants)Redirect and reinforce extension systems for crops and livestock to focus on subnational priorities as p

139、er the investment and land management plan,leveraging digital where relevant Improve traceability systems and sustainability certifications for applicable crops(likely most applicable to high-value cropseg,coffee or cocoa)to drive adoption of mitigation and adaptation measures linked to those certif

140、ications Invest in market linkages(eg,supply chain infrastructure or offtake agreements)for new crops in different areas based on expectations on evolving land suitability for crop production Invest in downstream infrastructure to reduce postharvest losses(eg,storage facilities and cold chain or reg

141、ulations on storage conditions)Mitigate climate-induced volatility Incorporate climate change intelligence and predictive analytics into food security planning(eg,leverage insights from climate risk analysis and early warning systems to proactively adjust production,storage,trade and distribution ef

142、forts;ensure policy coordination to mitigate crop price crises)Scale up crop insurance mechanisms(eg,weather index insurance targeting smallholder farmers)Invest in resilience-related infrastructure(eg,flood protection,water storage)16What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersDesig

143、ned by McKinsey Global PublishingCopyright 2023 McKinsey&Company.All rights reserved.Chania Frost is a consultant in McKinseys Nairobi office,where Kartik Jayaram is a senior partner and Gillian Pais is a partner.The authors wish to thank David Andrieux,Nicolas Bellemans,Kelsey Carter,Tejas Dave,Mik

144、ael Djanian,Agustin Gutierrez,Joshua Katz,Franois Klein,Tim Lenters,Florence Lepelletier,Nitika Nathani,Yunus Rocker,Aashna Shah,Kasia Tokarska,Maurits Waardenburg,and Gwin Zhou for their contributions to this article.Platform in 2017 with 10,000 farmers in Kenya and Rwanda.They worked with lenders

145、to develop loan products that featured terms and conditions encouraging farmers uptake of climate-smart agricultural and land management practices and use of mobile technology to monitor the adoption of climate-smart farming in compliance with loan agreement requirements.20 Pula,an insurance tech st

146、art-up in Africa,has provided agriculture insurance to 6.8 million farmers,21 including products to address weather-related yield impacts.Resilience-related infrastructure is being put in place in even the most remote and low-tech contexts.For example,“contour bunds”(low walls)combined with Zai pits

147、22 have been established in 200,000 to 300,000 hectares of land across the Sahel.The approach almost doubled the yield of cereals,despite frequent droughts.23 This is not a comprehensive list of macroscale solutions.But they illustrate some powerful initiatives stakeholders can pursue to support the

148、 scaling of adoption of adaptation and mitigation measures among smallholder farmers.Additionally,actors can support further research to inform decision making.For example,the cost to adopt and scale these measures is largely unexplored in the currently available literature.While we use a qualitativ

149、e assessment on cost,understanding the true costs is critical in making trade-offs on what measures to choose.Another research question could explore the effectiveness of various measures,particularly regarding adaptation where there is no common metric or set of metrics.Finally,extensive piloting w

150、ould be helpful to test which macrosolutions are most effective in encouraging farmers to adopt priority measures and to develop and derisk sustainable business models to support adoption.Smallholder farmers can adopt a range of measures to mitigate and adapt to the risks of climate change.Governmen

151、ts and other stakeholders could consider supporting them in their efforts to adopt sustainable farming practices.In doing so,stakeholders could reflect on the national context in which they are working and collaborate to identify adaptation and mitigation priorities.The prioritization would ultimate

152、ly act as a North Star and would feed into an agriculture land management plan to inform a more efficient allocation of investment and effort,from innovative financing mechanisms to targeted research and development and technology innovations.Climate change is already creating huge losses for smallh

153、older farmers globally.To achieve a 1.5 pathway,responsible actors have no time to lose in supporting the sustainable smallholder farmer community.1720 “Climate-smart lending platform,”Partnerships for Forests,accessed December 20,2022;“Greenfi:Climate-smart lending platform,”The Lab,accessed Decemb

154、er 20,2022.21 Agricultural insurance for smallholder farmers:Digital innovations for scale,GSMA,2020.22 Zai pits are shallow bowls filled with compost or manure in which crops are planted,allowing more water to soak into the soil and trapping silt and organic matter that would have washed away.23 Pa

155、ul J.H.Neate,Climate-smart agriculture:Success stories from farming communities around the world,CGIAR,November 2013.Scan Download PersonalizeFind more content like this on the McKinsey Insights AppWhat climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersTechnical Appendix.Thirty-three mitigation

156、 and adaption measures would apply in a smallholder farmer contextAnimal production practicesMeasureMitigation AdaptationCase studyCountry1Improve breeding systems(breed selection and breeding or insem-ination timing management)for increased productivity and reduced greenhouse-gas(GHG)emissions(with

157、 GHG-focused breed selection)A community-based goat breeding pro-gram with 269 smallholder farmers in Malawi and Uganda improved livestock breed quality with higher average weight(16 kg to 19 kg)and higher survival rates(72%to 91%).It led to improved end products with a reduced impact on the climate

158、.1Malawi,Uganda2Intensify fodder production to reduce extensive grazing for dairy cattle and reduce emissions from land-use conversionA life cycle assessment of different feeding practices in Tanzania found that feed intensification increased milk yield by up to 60.1%and reduced GHG emis-sions by up

159、 to 52.4%for farmers with traditional cattle and 38.0%for farmers with improved cattle due to land-use reduction.A further 11.434.9%GHG reduction could be realized by reducing the yield gaps of concentrate feed crops.2Tanzania3Expand use of feed processing for improved digestibility to reduce methan

160、e emissions from enter-ic fermentationA program in Nigeria using processed ensiled maize with minimum concen-trates to improve dry-matter intake and digestibility of 20 West African dwarf sheep found improved weight gain(90.48 g per day per head).3Nigeria4Optimize the animal feed compo-sition and tr

161、ansition to diets that reduce methane production from enteric fermentation A program across 5 counties in Kenya using fodder legumes and fodder trees for dairy cattle resulted in an 818%reduction in enteric methane emissions.4Kenya5Integrate livestock and crop sys-tems to reduce nutrient losses(ie,m

162、anagement of farm-level nutrient flows and losses from manure)to reduce further input requirements and related emissionsNutrient recycling in integrated croplivestock systems in Madagascar,using practices such as collection of liquid manure or manure composting,improved the circulating of nutrient f

163、lows by up to 76%.5Madagascar6Improve animal health monitoring and illness prevention to control disease outbreaks(predicted to increase with warming climates),thereby increasing productivity and creating GHG emissions savingsVaccination centers set up in Zambia to prevent animal disease outbreaks s

164、uch as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia benefitted 253,000 farmers by reducing cattle mortality rates.6Zambia7Improve timing of livestock sales(eg,by weight,age and time of year)to maximize productivity and reduce GHG emissions footprint per head A combination of a lower slaughter age and improved

165、feed quality could reduce emissions intensities by 34%for cattle and 40%for sheep and goats,with the lower age at slaughter having the major impact.7Kenya18What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersAnimal production practices(continued)MeasureMitigation AdaptationCase studyCountry8

166、Optimize stocking rate(livestock heads per hectare ha)according to land capacity to minimize land degradation and maximize grass-land and livestock performanceAnalysis of the effect of optimal stocking levels in the rangelands of Narok County in Kenya found fewer crop farming con-versions,greater st

167、abilization in herd levels,and an increase in intensification while preserving and improving ecosys-tem production.8Kenya9Scale rotational grazing and rangeland restoration to improve grassland health and increase soil carbon contentRotational grazing practices and grass-land restoration among pasto

168、ralists in northern Kenya resulted in 1.4%annual increase in soil organic carbon.9KenyaCrop production practices:RiceMeasureMitigation AdaptationCase studyCountry10Utilize dry direct-seeding technol-ogy and optimize rice variety selec-tion(eg,aerobic rice that grow in nonflooded fields)to increase p

169、roductivity,and reduce methane emissions from rice paddies,as well as reduce reliance on waterDemonstration trials across 15 small-holder farms in an area of Thailand with erratic rainfall using mechanized dry direct-seeding reduced seeding rate by 5261%;the technology design reduces the risk of cli

170、mate variations by reducing water use while increasing productivity and reducing production costs.10Thailand11Improve water management to reduce methane emissions in rice paddiesA sustainable intensification program using techniques such as alternate wet-ting and drying(rather than continuous floodi

171、ng)was employed by more than 1 million smallholder farmers across 185,000 hectares of land.It resulted in 33%reduced water use compared with conventional farming practices.In aggregate,all interventions(including water management,but also manage-ment of input use)resulted in emissions reduction of 2

172、062%.11Philippines12Improve placement of fertilizer(eg,urea deep fertilization)to mitigate emissions from rice fieldsMicrodosing fertilization near the seed and root zone at 3 sites in the central highlands of Madagascar increased yields by 5567%while reducing the risk of climate stress by reducing

173、the time to heading(and consequently shortening required growth durations.12Madagascar19What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersCrop production practices:Rice(continued)MeasureMitigation AdaptationCase studyCountry13Improve rice straw management by incorporating crop residues int

174、o paddy soil to maintain and enhance soil fertility and carbon storageDirect incorporation of crop residues into the soil by rice farmers in Northern Vietnam resulted in a significant increase in soil organic carbon(up to 3 metric tons of carbon per ha per crop-ping season)as well as the returning o

175、f key nutrients to the soil.13Vietnam14Expand use of new pest manage-ment practices(eg,seeds,inte-grated pest management IPM,pheromones)to maintain pro-ductivity in the face of projected increased pest and disease threats in a warming climateField trials conducted in Kenya found that certain drought

176、 tolerant spe-cies of forage legumes in the genus Desmodium effectively controlled the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica,which is set to become more competi-tive given anticipated conditions under climate change;the two species that successfully suppressed Striga also sig-nificantly increased cereal

177、 grain yields.14Uganda15Expand use of drought-tolerant crop varieties and hybrids to main-tain productivity in the face of pro-jected increased rainfall variability A breeding trial of 160 varieties of drought-tolerant maize conducted with 15 smallholder farmers across 13 sub-Saharan African countri

178、es found yield improvement of more than 600 kg per ha over a 7-year period in high-drought conditions.15Multiple16Scale low-or no-tillage farming to minimize soil disturbance and retain organic soil coverEmploying zero-till and minimum-till practices in Bangladesh reduced nega-tive externalities on

179、wheat farms,includ-ing increasing soil carbon accumulation,preventing water loss,and mitigating GHG emissions without compromising yield.16Bangladesh17Intercrop to improve soil health,reduce pest and disease out-breaks,and optimize fertilizer useCoffeebanana intercropping systems at several smallhol

180、der farms in Uganda showed increased coffee quality and higher yields,increased carbon stocks(from 10.5 megagrams Mg per ha to 42.5 Mg per ha),and increased soil car-bon stocks(1.5 times as much).17Uganda20What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersCrop production practices:Rice(con

181、tinued)MeasureMitigation AdaptationCase studyCountry18Expand use of crop rotations and cover cropping using legumes or a mix that includes a legume to improve soil health and reduce nitrogen applicationA study of 6 combinations of tillage,residue management,and green gram legumes integration in rice

182、wheat systems resulted in the lowest global warming potential,ranging from 3,301 kg to 823 kg CO2 equivalent(CO2e)per ha per year compared to 4,113 kg to 7,917 kg CO2e per ha per year in other treatments;the water footprint was 29%lower,with soil sequestration having significant effects on the total

183、 global warming potential.18India19Expand use of soil testing to guide fertilizer application,increasing yields,improving soil health,and reducing overall fertilizer applica-tionA nationwide soil-mapping effort in Ethiopia boosted wheat yields from 1 metric ton to 3 metric tons per ha by using local

184、 soil fertility analysis to inform devel-opment of tailored fertilizer blends.19Ethiopia20Reduce overapplication of nitro-gen fertilizers in India and China to reduce emissions associated with fertilizer lossesUse of a“nutrient expert”tool in India that optimizes fertilizer management practices redu

185、ced nitrogen application by 1535%in rice and wheat,which increased yields by 48%,resulting in a reduction in global warming potential of 2.5%in rice and 1220%in wheat.20India21Expand use of soil amendments(eg,manure,compost,crop res-idue,lime,biochar,and various inoculations)to improve soil healthA

186、trial in 75 test areas in Cameroon found that biochar made from agricultural wastes and tree thinnings improved soil productivity and increased maize pro-duction from 1.7 metric tons per ha to 2.4 metric tons per ha(40%);it also produced an overall gain of 85%in grain weight.21Cameroon22Switch to ot

187、her crops better suited to climate-related land suitability changes to ensure long-term sustainabilityAn assessment of 2,000 farmers across 7 Latin American countries found that farmers adapt to climate change by switching crops to fruits and vegeta-bles in warmer locations and wheat and potatoes in

188、 cooler locations to maximize yields and revenues.22MultipleLand-use change and intensificationMeasureMitigationAdaptationCase studyCountry23Expand adoption of effective rain-water harvesting(eg,with earth or stoneworks)to prolong access to water and reduce runoff,improving soil health and reducing

189、fertil-izer lossesStone bunds and Zai pits were used to reduce rainwater and topsoil runoff in the highly arid Sahel region while cre-ating water storage systems,resulting in sorghum and millet yields of 1 metric ton per hadouble the yield achieved on unimproved land.23Sahel region21What climate-sma

190、rt agriculture means for smallholder farmersLand-use change and intensification(continued)MeasureMitigationAdaptationCase studyCountry24Introduce irrigation(from exclu-sively rainfed farming)to increase productivity and resilience in rela-tion to increased rainfall variability and reduce risk of lan

191、d-use change and related emissionsA drip irrigation system was introduced in a dry,high-altitude area of Ecuador,allowing crops to be watered for up to 2 weeks while doubling incomes by using stored water as fish nurseries.24Ecuador25Transition to drip or sprinkler irrigation(from flood irrigation)t

192、o improve water efficiency and reduce soil erosion,improving soil health and reducing fertilizer lossesThe use of low-cost drip irrigation systems in South Africa enabled reduction in water use by 3050%,accompanied by yield improvements in smallholder farm trials.25South Africa26Scale solar-powered

193、irrigation(from petrol pump irrigation)to reduce emissions from fossil fuelpowered alternativesReplacing diesel-powered irrigation with solar irrigation was implemented across 20 acres of rice fields in Bangladesh,allowing farmers to grow 3 crops as opposed to 1 over the year,increasing soil nutriti

194、on(through crop rotation)and saving 19.6 MWh of electricity per year(equivalent to 26 metric tons of CO2 emissions per year).26Bangladesh27Electrify on-farm machinery and equipment(except scaling solar-powered irrigation)to reduce fossil fuelpowered alternativesA study on vegetable smallholder farms

195、 in China simulating a switch to using biodiesel in place of gasoline and diesel reduced total the total carbon footprint by 6.6%to 10.9%;using hydropowered electricity,instead,reduced the total carbon footprint by 10.0%to 15.9%.27China28Develop eco-engineering(use of ecology and engineering to rest

196、ore and protect ecosystems)of reefs to protect mangrove forests to pro-vide coastal flood buffers,protect-ing coastal agricultureAfter 10 years,an assessment of a 45,000-hectare mangrove restoration project in Senegal found that it had led to an increase of fish stocks of more than 4,200 metric tons

197、 per year,allowed res-toration of 15%of previously abandoned rice fields,and enabled a 10%yield increase for rice fields farther offshore.28Senegal22What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersLand-use change and intensification(continued)MeasureMitigationAdaptationCase studyCountry2

198、9Expand agroforestry(integrating trees into cropland for firewood,forestry-based land restoration,and diversified income)to improve ecological functions,improve soil water storage,increase soil pro-ductivity,reduce erosion,improve the microclimate,and buffer against climate variabilityall while incr

199、easing carbon sequestration and reducing the need for defor-estation for fuelwood.An agroforestry program in the highly arid Sahel aiming to restore indigenous tree cover resulted in multiple benefits,including increased firewood,fewer pests and diseases,less soil erosion,and rising water tables.Yie

200、lds of millet more than tripled from 150 kg per ha to 500 kg per ha in Niger.In addition,the estimated value per household of the tree products became$1,000 per ha.29NigerPostharvest and processing lossesMeasureMitigationAdaptationCase studyCountry30Improve loss management in meat and dairy producti

201、on(eg,through solar cold-chain storage)Due to the lack of on-farm refrigeration,evening milk is forcibly consumed,is sold cheaply to nearby neighbors or hawkers,or spoils.A project piloting 80 off-grid solar milk chillers capable of storing 40 liters of evening milk allowed farmers to sell five to 4

202、0 extra liters per day of eve-ning milk,resulting in additional income of$60 to$500.30Kenya31Introduce mechanization in rice farming to reduce food loss and associated emissionsSmallholder farms in Nigeria using mechanized harvesting and threshing of rice as a mitigative measure increased profit by$

203、200 per ha and avoided 1.7 metric tons of CO2e emissions per ha through reduced losses.31Nigeria32Reduce on-farm postharvest crop loss through improved storage and packagingSmallholder banana farmers in Embilipitiya,south of Sri Lankaafter being introduced to technical inno-vations such as harvestin

204、g at correct maturity,applying correct harvesting methods,and implementing appropri-ate handlingimproved packaging and transportation and reduced postharvest losses from 28.80%to 19.05%.32Sri Lanka33 Utilize crop waste(eg,for animal feed,biomass energy production,biochar production,biofuel generatio

205、n and composting),particularly in lieu of burning,to reduce related emissions150 smallholder farming households in Kenya were provided biochar gasifiers and training on biochar production and use;after biochar use,96%stated that it benefited soil health,and 33%stated that it provided savings in term

206、s of pur-chased fertilizer.33Kenya23What climate-smart agriculture means for smallholder farmersSources1 Wilson Kaumbata et al.,“Experiences from the implementation of community-based goat breeding programs in Malawi and Uganda:A potential approach for conservation and improvement of indigenous smal

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208、y and performance of West African dwarf sheep fed ensiled maize stover and concentrate supplements,”Nigerian Journal of Animal Science,2020,Volume 22,Number 1.4 Polly J.Ericksen and John Kashangaki,Costbenefit analysis of fodder production as a low emissions development strategy for the Kenyan dairy

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210、 et al.,“Resilience and economic growth in arid lands-Accelerated growth in Kenya:Mitigation co-benefits of herd size and feed quality management,”Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,October 2016.8 Franklin Amuakwa-Mensah and Evelyne Nyathira Kihiu,“Improving access to livestock

211、markets for sustainable rangeland management,”African Journal of Economic Review,2017,Volume 5,Number 2.9 “Why carbon?The role of the Northern Kenya Rangeland Carbon Project in grassland restoration,”Northern Rangelands Trust,accessed December 21,2022.10 Kanlaya Sansen et al.,“Farmer-participatory e

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217、ing:Implementation guidance for policymakers and investors,”Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture,2015.18 Tek B.Sapkota et al.,“Reducing global warming potential through sustainable intensification of basmati rice-wheat systems in India,”Sustainability,June 2017,Volume 9,Number 6.19 Feeding

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220、,2013.24 “Climate change poses new challenges for farmers in central Ecuador,”IFAD,March 22,2016.25 Lisa Andersson,“Low-cost drip irrigation:On farm implementation in South Africa,”Lulea University of Technology,2005.26 “A case study on solar powered irrigation system to facilitate the sustainable e

221、nergy access for the off-grid area population of Bangladesh,”World Access to Modern Energy(WAME),2010.27 Yingjie Hu,Jin Sun,and Ji Zheng,“Comparative analysis of carbon footprint between conventional smallholder operation and innovative largescale farming of urban agriculture in Beijing,China,”PeerJ

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